Child Abuse

This topic is a Contemporary Issue identified in Chapter 7, History, Culture and Change in Childhood, of Exploring Early Childhood. It discusses types of abuse, including the indicators and effects of each type, explains how to protect children and report abuse, and investigates the services available to assist families in abusive situations.

In Australia, there are over 270 reports of child abuse made each day, a total of approximately 110 000 in 2000–2001 (Australians Against Child Abuse, 2002). This is a serious social problem for the entire community as abused children may suffer drug and alcohol addiction, homelessness, mental illness, suicide, permanent physical or emotional injuries, or even death.

Child abuse is any action, or lack of action, by a parent or caregiver that endangers or restricts a child's physical or psychological health or development (Kids First Foundation, 2002). In most cases, the abuse is not an isolated incident, but a pattern of behaviour that occurs over time with cumulative effects. Children can experience abuse from people within or outside their family, and all such experiences are traumatic.

Types of Abuse

The abuse of children can be grouped into several categories or types, and some children may suffer harm as a result of a combination of these types. In a study conducted by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare in 2001, four types of abuse were identified. The levels of substantiated cases of each type of abuse in Australia in 1999–2000 are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Types of abuse substantiated in Australia 1999–2001

Neglect

28%

Physical abuse

31%

Emotional abuse

27%

Sexual abuse

14%

Physical abuse

Description
Physical abuse is physical punishment, or the non-accidental use of violence by a parent or caregiver, that causes injury to a child (Committee on Child Abuse of Hong Kong, 2000a). It includes hitting, shaking, beating, throwing, burning, strangling or biting that may result in a range of injuries, such as fractures, dislocations, cuts, burns and bruises.

Indicators
The symptoms or indicators of this abuse can be physical or behavioural. Physical indicators include obvious physical injuries in locations where it is unlikely that a child has had an accident, or very severe injuries, such as:

repeated fractures
internal injuries
the coexistence of new and old injuries
poisoning and ligature marks on the wrists, ankles and waist that indicate a child has been bound.

Behavioural indicators can include:

the child telling someone that abuse has occurred
being wary or distrusting adults
poor self-esteem
extreme behaviour, either very aggressive or very passive
fear of parents or of going home
fear when other children cry or shout.

Effects
The consequences or effects of physical abuse are wide ranging. Such abuse can cause a great deal of pain for the child and can lead to permanent physical disabilities, brain damage, slow development and even death. The emotional and social development of children can also be adversely affected, with aggressive behaviour becoming a normal response for them.

Psychological or emotional abuse

Description
Psychological or emotional abuse occurs when a parent or caregiver purposefully or negligently creates an emotional environment that is detrimental to a child's behavioural, emotional, intellectual, or physical functioning (Committee on Child Abuse of Hong Kong, 2000b). Such abuse includes repeated incidents of criticism, teasing, belittling, threatening, deprivation or ignoring. The child is rejected or corrupted and is not loved or kept secure. Witnessing continual family violence between adults in the home can also be considered psychological abuse as it is very harmful to children.

Indicators
The major indicators of psychological abuse are behavioural. Children suffering this abuse may:

tend to have low self-esteem and devalue themselves
be withdrawn, passive and tearful
display aggressive or demanding behaviour
be highly anxious
display regressive behaviours, such as bed wetting and biting
have difficulty relating to other children and adults
be highly dependent on other people
have suicidal tendencies.

Effects
The effects on growth and development are obvious. Psychologically abused children often have permanent behavioural difficulties, become isolated as adults and suffer mental illnesses, including depression. They may find it impossible to be productive and responsible members of society, and suicide rates are high among sufferers.

Sexual abuse

Description
Sexual abuse occurs when an adult or someone older, bigger or more powerful, involves a child in sexual activity. Offenders take advantage of their power or authority over the child to meet their own needs (Australians Against Child Abuse, 2002). Sexual abuse includes any form of sexual touching such as fondling genitals, buttocks, breasts or thighs, as well as oral and genital contact, intercourse or penetration. Any form of sexual suggestion to children (such as showing pornographic material, exposing oneself) or the use of children in the production of pornographic materials and child prostitution constitutes sexual abuse. It is often difficult to detect this type of abuse because of the secrecy associated with it. Children are often threatened or coerced into not talking about it and are frightened about what may happen if others find out.

Indicators
The physical indicators of sexual abuse may include:

bruising and cuts
vaginal or anal bleeding or discharge
sexually transmitted diseases
pain or itching in the genital area
pregnancy.

The behavioural indicators that may be present include:

the child telling someone that abuse has occurred
withdrawal
extreme anxiety
difficulty in sleeping
displays of sexual behaviour or knowledge inappropriate for the child's age
repetitive behaviours, such as rocking, thumb sucking or self abuse
the child experiencing difficulties relating to other children and adults.

Effects
The effects of sexual abuse can be physical, and more significantly psychological and social. Those who have been abused as children may have real and serious difficulty forming meaningful and long-term adult relationships and taking part in family life. Any physical injuries sustained as a result of sexual abuse might mean that victims may not be able to have children of their own, or they may have to live with a sexually transmitted disease for the rest of their life; and suicidal tendencies are a real issue.

Neglect

Description
Neglect involves depriving children of their basic needs for safety, health and normal growth and development. These needs include nutrition, clothing, shelter, warmth, hygiene, health care, education and supervision (Australians Against Child Abuse, 2002). Children may be forced to take on duties not appropriate for their age or ability in order to survive. The failure to provide these needs over time can cause significant harm to children.

Indicators
The physical indicators of neglect include:

consistently being hungry, tired and malnourished
poor hygiene, dirtiness and untidy appearance
repeatedly being inappropriately dressed for weather conditions
frequent or unattended injuries or health problems.

In addition, several behavioural indicators may be present. Children may:

be prone to stealing
perform poorly in school
be afraid of going home
not be able to play with other children
be reluctant to have others near their home
display awareness of work or responsibilities beyond their years.

Effects
The effects of neglect can be extremely dangerous. Inadequately supervised children can be harmed or even killed in accidents in the home. They can also suffer long-term growth and development problems due to malnutrition, or suffer mental health problems. Neglect can result in limited access to education, which has consequences for them as adults trying to find work, earn an income and become productive members of society.

Protecting Children

Each state and territory in Australia has a government department that works collaboratively with other agencies and legislation to protect children from abuse and neglect. (Refer to page 112 of Exploring Early Childhood for the relevant legislation for each state and territory, and page 274–5 for the government departments that support families.)

In New South Wales, it is the role of the Department of Community Services (DOCS) under the Children and Young Persons (Care and Protection) Act 1998, to work cooperatively with other groups, such as the police, and the Department of Education and Training, to offer this protection to children. Queensland has introduced Suspected Child Abuse and Neglect (SCAN) Teams consisting of police, health and Family, Youth and Community Care representatives. Western Australia provides a coordinated service for protecting children through the Child Protection Services Register, with primary responsibility being held by the Department of Community Development.

Community responsibility

As community members we have a responsibility to protect children and report suspected abuse if there is reasonable grounds for our fears. Suspicion may be raised by listening to children and observing their behaviour or the behaviour of their parents or caregivers. Many children who are being abused or neglected can not seek help for themselves. They may feel intimidated by the abusive adult, unsafe in the family and afraid they will not be believed. Whatever the situation, children need the help of a trusted adult.

Anyone who has reasonable concerns for the safety of a child can notify the relevant state or territory government department, by telephone, in writing or in person at a local office. Each department keeps the identity of the person who has made the notification confidential. Reporting suspected abuse provides the government with the opportunity to assist families in situations where a child may be at risk.

Legal responsibility

Those obliged to report
There are groups of people who are obliged by law to report child abuse if they suspect there are reasonable grounds, although the requirements in each state and territory do vary. In Queensland this legal obligation falls to doctors, school teachers, school principals and Families, Youth and Community Care officers. In Victoria doctors, nurses, police officers, teachers and principals are obliged to report. In Western Australia only those covered by the Family Law Act 1975 must report - this means only counsellors and contracted personnel. In South Australia, New South Wales, Tasmania, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory, the requirements are broader and all people whose work brings them into contact with children have a legal obligation to report a child suspected of being at risk. In New South Wales mandatory reporting applies to those nominated under the Children and Young persons (Care and Protection) Act 1998. Anyone who undertakes paid work with children in the fields of health care, welfare, education, children's or residential services, or law enforcement, must report any cases of suspected child abuse.

Procedure once a report is made
Once the government department receives a child abuse report, it makes decisions about the best way to proceed with investigations in the particular situation and how other groups may be able to assist. For example, DOCS may contact the child's teacher, relatives, or the police if it is suspected that the law has been broken. A District Officer normally visits the household and interviews the child and family members. If the interview confirms that abuse or neglect has occurred, DOCS acts to keep the child safe from further harm. This may mean providing practical help for the family, such as arranging child care or medical assistance, counselling, emergency financial assistance or other information or services. If the child is in real and immediate danger he or she will be moved to a safe place, such as to a relative or trusted friend, or into foster care.

Assistance available to families
There is a wide range of assistance available to families in which abuse has occurred. These services may provide help for the child, the abuser, and for family members, to attempt to deal most effectively with the situation. In all cases, the safety and welfare of the child is paramount. Some types of assistance are specifically targeted at one type of abuse, while others are more general and broad in the help they provide. It would not be possible to describe all the services available in each state and territory here, but a few are outlined below. They may be government based, privately operated or charitable organisations.

Dympna House is a child sexual assault and incest counselling service, based in Sydney. It provides counselling, health information, referral services and other relevant support for child welfare and domestic violence.

Operation Paradox aims to increase community awareness of child sexual abuse and the role of the police in protecting children at risk. It is a partnership between NSW Police Service and DOCS and has received over 7000 calls since 1990. Information can be provided anonymously, and is always confidential. An operator records details from the caller who suspects abuse. Information is recorded about the child, the offender and the current risk. This information is assessed, prioritised and passed on to the appropriate agency to respond.

Family Drug Support has services in each state and territory. These include counselling and family therapy, family support groups, drug education for parents and children, referral services for treatment and rehabilitation, and other related information.

Kids Helpline is a national telephone and web-based counselling service for children and young people. It is free, anonymous and confidential. Children can speak to counsellors who offer them advice, support and referral to other services. The counsellors aim to empower the children and act as advocates for them.

As we have seen, the effects of child abuse are wide ranging, and their long-term effects take an enormous toll on the victims, as well as their families and society in general. The financial cost to society in dealing with abuse is very large, but more importantly, the cost in human suffering and wasted individual potential is far greater. Identifying and reporting abuse allows for the protection of children and the provision of assistance to families so that future abuse can be prevented.

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